Milocca’s Charlotte Gower Chapman

Although there are exceptions, the history of sociocultural anthropology

made significant theoretical, methodological, and ethnographic contributions

or more theoretical orientations, or schools of thought, linked directly

of anthropological biographies, autobiographies, and related life

individuals who become well known within—and sometimes outside—

the discipline, and whose ideas are frequently discussed and cited in the

anthropological literature. In the process, however, these "canonical"

contemporaries. Many of the "lesser known" scholars, as a result, are

relegated to the status of footnotes in the history of anthropology, or

forgotten altogether.

the work and achievements of a number of these "lesser known" anthropologists

(and anthropological traditions). They also raise "questions

about the processes of inclusion and exclusion that, over time, do much

Day Gower (who later became Charlotte Gower Chapman), and some

of the problems Gower experienced in her attempts to establish herself

to focus on Gower Chapman’s work in south-central Sicily, and

to examine her place in both the discipline of anthropology and Sicilian

ety of reasons, virtually disappear from "anthropological memory," they

can have a significantly different, albeit ambiguous, fate in the communities

where they conducted their research. This is the key theme we address

in this chapter.

Charlotte Day Gower was "born in Kankakee, Illinois, a small city about

passed away as a result of a heart attack at the age of eighty, on September

were marked by a number of changes and accomplishments.

Gower majored in psychology at Smith College, receiving her bachelor’s

Smith College, however, she completed a course in anthropology with

(nasal aperture) in modern humans. Although written very early

in her anthropology career, the article has been cited in a number of recent

expected, simply make use of the work as a historical document. A number

of scholars, in contrast, go beyond this to actually make use of certain

aspects of the nomenclature and coding protocols Gower developed

A year later, Gower enrolled in the MA in Anthropology program at

exposed to the ideas of Fay-Cooper Cole, Edward Sapir and, through

them, to both the Boasian tradition in anthropology and some of the

innovative ideas being developed in the Chicago School of Sociology

one of Gower’s strongest supporters during her stay at the University of

Chicago, and for some time later.

The following year, with the aid of a subvention from the Central States

branch of the American Anthropological Association, she was able to

focused on both archaeological and ethnological material in examining

the role of the Caribbean in the diffusion of cultural traits between

North, Central, and South America. Although the focus on diffusion and

trait distribution would soon become outdated, the publication did have

limited success. A number of scholars, for example, have made reference

Gower’s work served as the spark that ignited Cornelius Osgood’s

interest in Caribbean studies. In fact, according to Irving Rouse, the

Caribbean Anthropological program Osgood helped establish at Yale

Immediately following the completion of her master’s degree, Gower

entered the PhD in Anthropology program at the University of Chicago.

For the dissertation, Gower conducted research among Sicilians in the

Chicago area "under the auspices of the Behavior Research Fund of

She focused on the role of religion and patron saints in Sicilian life. The

project, however, cannot be labeled a community study. Gower did not

study a specific immigrant group in a particular neighborhood of the

city. Instead, she worked with a relatively small number of individuals

residing in different neighborhoods of Chicago, and originating from

"Nor was [the] dissertation . . . a modernist ethnographic work based

on participant observation. It was a work of Sicilian memory culture"

of a portion of Sicilian culture from the accounts of people already in

[the United States], and literary sources"—such as the work of Sicilian

folklorist Giuseppe Pitrè.

one to Robert Redfield, for his study of peasant life in Tepoztlán,

Supernatural Patron in Sicilian Life." Gower was "the first woman to

also one of the very few cultural anthropologists in the United States to

receive a PhD for work that addressed Mediterranean or Near Eastern

seemed to be well on her way to becoming a prominent anthropologist.

Although a young scholar, she had managed to establish a good record

of achievement. In addition to acquiring the necessary educational credentials,

started to perform administrative duties for the Central States branch

Mead, one of only three prestigious Social Science Research Council

Sicily, due to its strategic location at the center of the Mediterranean

Sea, has attracted travelers and invaders for thousands of years. As a

result, Sicilian history has been characterized by successive waves of foreign

invasion, domination, and sometimes exploitation. With the arrival

of the Greeks in the eighth century BC much of the island became Hellenized

has come under the control or influence of various peoples, including

Carthaginians, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Spaniards, Austrians, and—

The extended period of foreign domination and exploitation created

various social and economic problems for the region. This state of

affairs reached severe proportions during, and immediately after, the

policies of the new government favored the northern regions of Italy.

Unification did not improve conditions in the south. In response to these

adverse economic and social conditions, many Sicilians chose out-migration.

Initially people migrated to northern Italy and other European

travel to overseas destinations such as Argentina, Brazil, Canada, and

abroad as compared with thirty-five million inside Italy" (Mack Smith

from southern Italy and Sicily. It is ironic that the island that attracted so

many foreign invaders was now sending its own people to foreign lands.

described the process as follows:

So long as we drew our population largely from northern Europe

there was little difficulty in adjusting the newcomers to American

conditions, but with the influx from southern Europe the situation

cial, economic and mental backgrounds were very different from

our own, and our attempts to incorporate them into our national

life were far from successful. To remedy this situation Anthropology

is carrying on intensive investigations of these people in

their home-lands. . . . in order that we may be able to intelligently

direct their adaptation to American life and conditions.

As one of Charlotte Gower’s mentors, Cole was instrumental in her decision

to work with Sicilian immigrants in Chicago, and then travel to

Sicily for further research.

states that her aim and rationale for research in Sicily was to

study the social organization and customs of a Sicilian village.

This was to be the second application of anthropological methods,

in imitation of Robert Redfield’s work in Mexico, to the

investigation of a semi-literate society. Sicily was chosen as the

area of study partly because it was hoped that a knowledge of

the background of the Sicilian immigrants to the United States

might prove useful in understanding their problems in and reactions

In Sicily, Gower conducted eighteen months of ethnographic field research

in Milocca. She chose Milocca based on the recommendation

of one of her Sicilian informants and language instructors in Chicago

town located a short distance from Milocca), was familiar with the area

and was able to provide Gower with a letter of reference for her arrival

in the community.

mainland and was in the process of strengthening its position in Sicily.

Prefect Cesare Morì was in charge of affairs on the island. Charlotte

Gower met with Morì upon her arrival in the Sicilian regional capital

of Palermo, and obtained a letter of introduction to present to local officials

by train, and traveled the remaining distance to Milocca on the back of

a mule. At the time of Gower’s arrival, Milocca was a small village or,

a relatively isolated region in the interior of the island. According to one

community member,

Italian, and had some knowledge of the Sicilian. When

the family saw a woman knocking at their door, in the evening,

alone, and wearing trousers, they quickly sent her away.

It was Don Salvatore Maria Tona, the archpriest, who made

arrangements for her accommodation for the night. The next

day Gower was introduced to the Angilella family. (Vincenzo

Ingrascì, field notes)

Although initially apprehensive about staying in this isolated community,

Gower was quickly reassured by Don Salvatore (Totò) Angilella and

other local officials that her stay would be fruitful. In fact, Gower states

that on reading the letter from Prefect Morì "the Mayor (Podestà) summoned

the midwife and informed her that henceforth I would be lodged

in her family’s large front room on the town square, and that her mother

Gower welcomed the opportunity to stay with the midwife and her

family, and her new links with Don Totò Angilella and his supporters.

She soon came to realize, however, that the letter from Prefect Morì

and her relationship with the Angilella family were to have both positive

and negative consequences for her research. Morì’s letter raised suspicions

about her real goal(s) in coming to Milocca. Based on discussions

with members of the community today, it seems that some people

at the time wondered if Gower was gathering information for the Fascist

government, while the majority of Milocchesi suspected that she was

not convinced with any certainty that she was a scholar rather than a

spy until long after she had returned to the United States (see Messana

information about themselves and their personal and business affairs,

these suspicions certainly added to the difficulties of generating data for

ethnographic study.

Gower’s situation was complicated further by the fact that Milocca

was divided politically into two competing factions, lead by the Angilella

and Cipolla families. She indicates that her affiliation with the Angilellas

"considerably limited my range of contacts among the leaders of the

of power may have secured a place for Gower in Milocca, but they

did not allow for free and open discussion with some members of the

that was "unwilling to cross the factional divide" to pursue her research

As a female anthropologist in a society with sharp divisions between

the female and the male domains, Gower also faced limits in what she

could observe and discuss concerning everyday life experiences (Mangiameli

could easily add that a male anthropologist (whether Italian or non-Italian)

would likely have faced similar problems conducting research with

the women of the community. To her credit, Gower recognized these

drawbacks and was able to make the best of a difficult situation.

For the ethnographic study itself, Gower focused on various aspects of

that range from issues surrounding status and role (and their relationship

to age and gender) to social stratification and religion. As a result,

much of the material contained in her book is what one would expect to

find in an early descriptive ethnography. Gower’s research, however, was

innovative in some respects, although in the end it failed to live up to its

potential.

First, while many anthropologists of the time were conducting research

in non-Western settings, in what some would refer to as "tribal"

or "exotic" locations, Gower was one of the first North American

anthropologists to conduct research at home (with her work among

Sicilians in Chicago) and to follow up this research in a Western

this innovation. Gower chose an isolated community, on the margins

of Western Europe, as her research site. Sicily was at the time, and in

Milocca, in turn, as a loosely linked set of agricultural hamlets, was

an atypical agro-community even within the Sicilian interior (King and

anthropologist to concentrate on research within a specific peasant

community. Redfield’s work in Mexico stimulated a great deal of interest,

research among Mexican peasants (and in peasant societies in general).

Charlotte Gower’s work had the potential of generating similar interest

in the anthropology of Italy and the Mediterranean region. Her research

ety of themes in Mediterranean anthropology—including gender issues,

honor and shame, patron saints and religious festivals, factionalism, and

the study of the interrelationships among kinship, friendship and social

early discussion of the social and economic aspects of what she called

Third, Gower’s research had an applied dimension. Italian immigrants

to the United States (as well as many other ethnic groups) tended to settle

in urban centers and, more specifically, in areas inhabited by other

members of their particular group. Both politicians and the general public

regarded these immigrant enclaves as a threat to the American "melting

pot" ideology. Gower’s study, as mentioned earlier, was to provide

a basis for understanding Sicilian peasant life, in order to inform policy

This was the rationale that provided the basis for securing funds for the

research project. The promise of generating policy-related information

made use of Gower’s manuscript, directly or indirectly, to inform some

of their actions during and immediately after World War II. During this

period, a number of anthropologists engaged in the study of "culture at

a distance"—that is, the anthropological study of "the cultural regularities

in the characters of individuals who are members of societies which

are inaccessible to direct observation . . . because a state of active warfare

exists," there are "barriers to travel and research," or due to temporal

often had a political purpose—such as providing information about

the enemy or providing a basis for establishing successful relationships

the nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century writings of Giuseppe Pitrè

and, to a lesser extent, Gower’s research on Milocca to address aspects

of Sicilian culture and society. Although Gower’s manuscript was not

Mangiameli suggests that the Allied forces made use of Whyte’s article,

and/or Gower’s manuscript directly, in the occupation of Sicily and the

governance of the island after the war. Gower’s descriptions of Milocca,

local customs and the terrain in the surrounding area would have been a

major asset for the American and British occupying forces.

We have not found documentation to support Mangiameli’s suggestion.

Apparently, however, a copy of Gower’s manuscript traveled to

for the British Occupation Forces in Sicily, does contain a great

deal of information concerning everything from geography to social

structure to Sicilian religious beliefs and practices. The manual makes no

reference to Gower, Radcliffe-Brown, or Whyte, so we can only speculate

as to whether or not there is a connection between the manual and

the unpublished Gower manuscript.

her teaching duties included courses in social and cultural anthropology.

Gower was affiliated with the University of Wisconsin. She began writing

Gower submitted the manuscript to the University of Chicago Press for

publication. After almost two years of consideration, in spite of Robert

Redfield and Fay-Cooper Cole’s lobbying in support of the manuscript,

they too declined to publish the manuscript.

made renewed efforts to interest someone in publishing Gower’s manuscript

were somehow lost in the process. The manuscript did not resurface

until Fred Eggan discovered a carbon copy of the work among the

of Eggan and, indirectly, Constance Cronin, the Schenkman

Publishing Company agreed to publish the manuscript. In a letter to

Eggan, who had agreed to write the foreword to the book, Gower summarized

what transpired in the following words:

Why not make the poor old thing a casualty of WW II? All that

I recall was that there were hopes of a commercial publisher and

Oxford [to Radcliffe-Brown]. I left for China, war broke out in

had no copy of the MS, but thought there might be a microfilm

of it somewhere. I then gave him my yellow carbon, which you

her situation at the University of Wisconsin, and her fears for the future:

Certain discoveries during the past week have pretty well destroyed

whatever confidence I may once have had in myself.

. . . I shall possibly . . . lose my position here—for general inadequacy.

[John] Gillin discussed the matter with Ralph [Linton]:

my classes are too small, and students complain that I am a

poor teacher. . . . So, in the face of the present economic crisis,

I might well be dispensed with.—I do not think that the loss

of my position, disastrous as that would be financially, is as

dreadful a prospect as the present recognition that my best is

not good enough.—Nor can I offer any excuses. My training

has been good.—Linton, telling me of the conversation, shows

a determination to fight to keep me on—but he is disappointed

in me. . . . But even if I am kept on—I shall feel "kept." . . .

So what next? I think of Radin, and Leslie Spier—I know what

opportunities I will have for another chance. The future looks

Ironically, these employment difficulties provided the incentive to complete

writing provided "a sanctuary" from the problems she was facing at the

University of Wisconsin. The letter also may explain why Gower began to

completed a full manuscript based on her research in Sicily, and initiated

a new research project with the population of New Glarus, Wisconsin

she received official news that her contract would not be renewed when

Anthropology), in a letter to G. C. Sellery (dean, College of Letters and

Science, University of Wisconsin), identified two reasons for not renewing

Gower’s appointment: lack of student interest in her courses, and a

for not renewing Gower’s contract at Wisconsin.

A relatively large number of American women sought a higher education

academic positions and advancing their career goals. Ruth Benedict

and Margaret Mead stand out as two of the more prominent female anthropologists

of the period. Gender-based biases and constraints, however,

played a major role in the lives of most, if not all, of these women

constraints. A weak teaching and publication record may have played a

role in the decision to terminate Gower’s appointment, but the circumstances

surrounding the decision were certainly much more complex.

Rather than wait for her contract to expire, Gower resigned from her

particularly female anthropologists, seeking positions in the

United States. So, with the help of Fay-Cooper Cole and Robert Redfield

at Lingnan University in Canton, China. Her plan at the time was

The Japanese attacked and occupied Canton shortly after Gower’s arrival

in China. In the initial months of the occupation, Gower served as

a volunteer at the refugee hospital that was quickly set up at the university

campus. She described it thus:

I served as pharmacist for the Red Cross and helped distribute

Canton in their scorched earth program, I moved to Hong Kong,

In Hong Kong, Gower resumed her position as dean of women at

Within a short time, Hong Kong too fell to the Japanese. Several days

later Gower and other "enemy aliens" were interned at the Stanley concentration

her predicament in this way:

We had a fairly decent camp, but it was terribly crowded. . . .

The crowding was next worst to the constant, gnawing hunger.

From January to March we were almost always hungry. At

us had not brought extra supplies, we would have died. ("Miss

A number of prominent American anthropologists were involved in

the war effort at the time. Fay-Cooper Cole "was engaged in the training

of Army and Navy officers in the Civil Affairs Training School for the

Far East, where his long experience in Southeast Asia and the Philippines

in Washington that Gower became involved with the American

wrote a letter of recommendation in support of Charlotte Gower’s

application to the U.S. Marine Corps. In the letter, Hutchins stressed

Gower’s outstanding ability in collecting, analyzing, and presenting technical

information, and referred to her as "an exceptionally capable and

and later a major, in the Marine Corps Women’s Reserve—where

and Hong Kong, along with her knowledge of the Cantonese language,

made her a valuable asset in both the war effort and the Cold War that

followed. Given her status with the secret service, it is also conceivable,

made its way into American strategic plans for the occupation and governance

of Sicily.

University to take on the position of Head of the Department of Sociology

year, the year "the CIA was founded, she joined the agency and remained

Charlotte Gower was one of a number of anthropologists who worked

directly or indirectly with the Office of Strategic Services, and later the

ethics and work for intelligence agencies reached a point of crisis (see

that provide insight into how Gower rationalized her position

with the CIA, and how she viewed the debates that started to take place

within the discipline of anthropology.

Gower Chapman for all intents and purposes was outside of the

field of anthropology. A variety of factors contributed to ensure that she

not publish any anthropological works in the years just before, or after,

did not provide a strong theoretical contribution to the growing body of

CIA made any written documents she may have produced for the agency

the years. In an early, pre-publication review, William Whyte identified

should have paid more attention to the social structure of Milocca

and the processes of social mobility within the community. Overall, he

welcomes Gower’s contribution to the anthropological study of peasant

societies. The post-publication reviews discuss the manuscript in a

(including the striking photographs of people and their activities)

as an important historical document. Paul Sterling, for example, states,

thropologists, sociologists and social historians interested in Sicily, the

Mafia, the Mediterranean, peasants, Fascism and so on, with a mine of

"all of Italian society south of Rome to the single behavioural

"Maximize the material short range advantages of the nuclear family;

assume that all others will do likewise." More specifically, he argued that

community cooperation to solve local problems in Montegrano (and by

extrapolation other southern Italian towns) was not possible, because

people were more concerned with promoting the interests of their own

families. Scarpaci makes use of Gower Chapman’s manuscript to show

that Banfield’s behavioral trope did not apply in the case of Milocca.

its sharp definition in the Milocchese world of informal co-operation

went as far as to indicate, "Chapman, Eggan, and the publisher have

performed a valuable service to the social sciences in presenting this volume"

the book as "The finest account of peasant life I have ever encountered"

of the two." As mentioned earlier, Gower Chapman’s work in Sicily anticipated

many of the themes that later became prevalent in Italian and

Mediterranean anthropology. Her work has been cited, and continues to

be cited, by scholars dealing with Sicily and the Mediterranean region,

as well as by those interested in Italian immigration to various overseas

"classic" text "in the anthropology of Europe" and "the classic ethnography

of Italy"—the type of text where "the imagination of the writer

comments, and citations, however, have not been sufficient to earn Charlotte

Gower Chapman a more prominent place in the history of North

American anthropology.

Relatively speaking, Gower Chapman’s work in Sicily has received

ethnography. It is Wim Ravesteijn, however, who provides an early, critical

look at some of the ideas contained in the manuscript. Ravesteijn

constitutes a restudy of Milocca, focusing primarily on the various

economic and political changes that took place in the community after

suggestion that little had changed in Milocca. In her preface to the ethnography,

Gower Chapman attempts to compensate for the long delay

in the publication of the manuscript by making the following statement:

During the forty years . . . since I studied Milocca, enormous

changes have taken place throughout the world . . . . Milocca

is now connected with the rest of the world by an automobile

road, and is reported to have electricity. . . . However, it

is doubtful that the basic economy has changed or that there

has been a marked increase in population. The hilly terrain does

not lend itself to mechanized agriculture. It is likely that life is

not much different from what it was when I was there, with the

same social stratification and local politics dominated by two

rival factions. Standards of conduct, which forty years ago differed

little from those in more advanced Sicilian communities,

Unfortunately, Gower Chapman made the statement without the benefit

of revisiting the community. Much had changed.

There is evidence of a long history of human habitation dating back to

the early Neolithic period in the area of Milocca-Milena, particularly in

this area was under the municipal control of the two larger communities

of Sutera and Campofranco. Milocca became an autonomous

left Milocca, during an eleven-month period between February and

became Villa Littoria, then Littoria Nissena, and finally Milena—after

Milena Vukotic of Montenegro, the mother of Italy’s Queen Elena (see

interests within the Fascist Party, with the final decision coming from

outside Milocca-Milena itself.

on a series of additional changes that affected life in Milena.

Gower Chapman was correct in her assertion that the population size of

figures were similar not because community structure and activity remained

the same, but rather because socioeconomic conditions sparked

In terms of the political and economic situation, King and Patterson

adequately two significant phenomena. First, although Gower

to specific locations in the United States, she does not address the ways

this emigration process may have influenced change in the community.

Second, Gower Chapman failed to address the Fascist policies that were

producing change in the rural areas of Sicily at the very moment she

was conducting research in Milocca. Gower Chapman chose to concentrate

on Milocca as an isolated peasant community rather than a community

experiencing a great deal of political, economic, and social influence

from an external political force. As part of this critique, Patterson

effects brought about by the Fascist government’s attempts to suppress

the Mafia in Sicily. These weaknesses in the ethnography are compounded

further by her failure to acknowledge the possibility of change between

were now three political parties—the Christian Democrats (DC), the

communist PCI, and the socialist PSI—competing for power (see also

Milena also experienced significant economic change. According to

and wheat-oriented," agrarian activity had declined and much of the

land in the vicinity of Milena remained "uncultivated or neglected."

He also points out that the economy, as a result of European economic

agreements, was now very much susceptible to and dependent upon

takes the criticism one step further. He points out that, beginning in the

new communication technologies.

Charlotte Gower Chapman herself, in a letter to Wim Ravesteijn, attributes

her failure to acknowledge the possibility of change in her preface

was my lack of faith in the future of mechanization of farming

in Milocca. It has resulted in less land being cultivated, now that

uncultivated. . . . In fact, I did not give sufficient weight to the

opening up of Milena by the highway. Nor did I conceive what

the effective use of a socialist government would do. (Ravesteijn

At one level, Gower Chapman’s speculation that little had changed

in Milocca can be excused simply as an unfortunate case of an anthropologist

losing touch with her research community. At another level, it

may constitute a style of communication linked to the very history of

anthropology—a style of communication that involves aspects of nostalgia,

romanticism, or the conflation of the past with the present to signify

that one feels a closeness to the community even though she or he has

to Milena after a two-year absence. He caught himself, on at least

three occasions, making use of a similar style of communication with

statements such as "things seem the same here in Milena" or "nothing

seems to have changed" (Sam Migliore, field notes). Yet a number of

things had changed, and he knew that changes had taken place based on

numerous telephone conversations with community members. Four of

these changes, for example, include the opening of a new caffé/bar near

northern Italy, scholastic and cultural exchanges with schools in Belgium

and Poland, and an attempt by certain individuals to revive some aspects

takes place each year approximately sixty days after Easter. The celebration

occurs in honor of the Eucharist (the transformation of the bread

began on Holy Thursday, and involved a procession transporting the

community. People displayed their finest linen along the procession

route, while certain families set up small altars outside of their homes

it remained overnight. The procession continued the next day, stopping

at the next altar. It often took a week to complete the procession and return

a one-day event, with the proceedings taking place on the Sunday and

after Sam Migliore arrived in Milena, three families prepared elaborate

taking place in Milena, as it is elsewhere. It is difficult to criticize

a scholar for conflating the past with the present, however, one realizes,

through personal experience, how easy it is to fall into the trap of ignoring

these changes in everyday conversation.

At yet another level, failure to address issues of change are consistent

with earlier conceptions of culture as something: "shared within a particular

social group; unique, bounded and homogeneous; relatively fixed,

consistent and stable; and, marked by holism and historical endurance"

The danger of representing culture in these terms is that it creates a negative

stereotype of a particular group of people and their way of life. This

is particularly important in any discussion of an unchanging "Sicilian

culture," because the phrase is often loaded with images of fatalism, organized

crime, "codes of honour and vendetta," and so on (see Schneider

Varese discussed the capture of a prominent Mafia boss:

An invaluable guide to [the world of the Mafia] is still the ethnography

American anthropologist. She spent a year in the small village

police raided the village searching for Mafiosi, "the square," she

wrote, "was filled with bleating sheep, goats, horses and mules."

With minor alterations, these words could well describe the

central square of Corleone today. Another unchanging feature

shared by these Mafiosi is their deep attachment to the Catholic

Gower Chapman’s failure to acknowledge the possibility of change in

Milena, in a sense, helps to reinforce certain stereotypes of Sicilians and

their "culture." Uncritical or unqualified uses of her work today have

the potential of ensuring the continued survival of these stereotypes.

Alba Angilella, the daughter of Don Totò Angilella, recalls that Charlotte

Gower Chapman sent at least one copy of her ethnography to Milena

Cordaro, Arturo Petìx, and others in Milena were taking a serious

interest in the manuscript. Cordaro, in fact, went as far as to write to

him that a student was interested in conducting a follow-up study

available to us. Wim Ravesteijn, as mentioned earlier, conducted

Milocchese fluent in English, conducted a restudy of Milocca-Milena as

part of his degree requirements at the University of Palermo. His thesis,

errors in the Gower Chapman ethnography, as well as expand discussion

with community elders.

that Petìx was not proficient in the English language. At the same time,

however, he was critical of the ethnography’s lack of time depth, and

the presence of factual errors in the few places where Gower Chapman

worked hard to promote the publication of an Italian translation of the

ethnography, through the efforts of Paolino Schillaci. The local authorities,

however, became increasingly concerned that an Italian translation

would be viewed, at least in the eyes of some community members, as a

negative portrayal of certain families, and possibly the community as a

whole, because: the research was based on direct observation and interviews;

and, Gower Chapman mentioned people by name (or nickname)

as she described the conditions under which they lived (for example,

the fact that some people lived in the same structure as their animals).

Without the support of the local administration, the project came to a

sudden halt.

It was Vito Messana of Montedoro, a community a short distance

while serving a physically and mentally challenging prison term at the

the project, he restricted his efforts to the translation of Sicilian linguistic

terms. In the preface, Messana briefly relates the background to Gower

Chapman’s research and the publication of the ethnography, identifies

certain weaknesses inherent in the manuscript (such as the issue of

"change"), and expresses his hope that the translation would serve as a

catalyst for future research on Milena.

To commemorate the new translation, Messana’s friends and relatives

organized a book launch in Montedoro. Vito Messana was released from

prison temporarily to take part in the celebration (King and Patterson

interrupted when one of the speakers from Montedoro commented that

council had bothered to even attend the celebration. The proceedings

soon deteriorated into a shouting match between people from

intensified with the passion of political tension. The Communist Party

was in power in Montedoro, while the Socialists controlled the administration

in Milena. There are different versions, however, of what actually

transpired at the launch. Certain members of the community recall that

it was one of the leaders of the communist group in Milena itself that

made the offending comments. Although the mayor of Milena, Salvatore

Luparelli, did not attend the celebration, members of the socialist group

were present to observe the proceedings, and they reacted quickly to the

negative comments about their administration. Federico Messana, the

mayor of Montedoro (and a relative of Vito Messana), intervened by

stating loudly, "we are not here to make politics; we are here to make

culture" (Vincenzo Ingrascì, field notes). To diffuse the conflict, he began

to read a passage from a Sicilian play about courtship and marriage,

archpriest of Montedoro, Don Andrea Duminuco, then blessed all those

present to prevent any further hostilities.

for a series of studies and restudies of Milocca-Milena by graduate students

enrolled at universities in Sicily (and other parts of Italy). Of these

works, Caterina Pasqualino’s doctoral dissertation in anthropology

(University of Palermo) is particularly significant. Pasqualino published

sections. The first section revisits Gower Chapman’s ethnography

in terms of three interrelated themes—a discussion of Milocca’s social

that Gower Chapman was not only influenced by the Chicago School of

Sociology and Robert Redfield’s work in Mexico, but also by theoretical

ideas associated with functionalism. She argues that a reading of the

ethnography indicates that Gower Chapman accepted and incorporated

notions of "harmony" and "functionality" into her work. In certain

respects, this is not surprising. We know that Radcliffe-Brown was at

manuscript, and that the two were in communication with one another

functionalism as a theoretical orientation for anthropological understanding.

mention factional tensions in Milocca but, taken as a whole, her ethnography

generates an image of the community as united, harmonious,

persistence in Milena during the roughly sixty-year period after Gower

Chapman completed her research in Milocca. Pasqualino’s restudy, then,

confirms and expands upon the critique of Gower Chapman’s portrayal

of Milocca as harmonious and unchanging.

have produced works dealing with either Gower Chapman or Milocca-

at the University of Palermo updating the discussion of change in Milena

to the end of the twentieth century. Maria Massa, in contrast, produced

of issues, including two not discussed in earlier works. First, she focuses

on linguistic differences and anomalies between the English and

the Italian versions of the ethnography. Massa points out passages where

Vito Messana has incorrectly translated certain words, or misinterpreted

the meaning behind specific phrases. Although readers of the Italian text

should be aware of these anomalies, their presence does not devalue the

importance of Messana’s contribution. Second, Massa addresses Gower

Chapman’s use of photography in both research and publication. She

argues that the photos provide a vehicle for comparison, and thereby

an excellent basis for an examination of change in Milocca since the

United States to Milocca, and taking many, many photographs, Gower

Chapman actually introduced new ideas and ways of seeing the world to

community members. In our view, it is ironic that someone who did not

believe that any significant change had taken place in Milocca-Milena

over an approximately forty-year period may actually have been instrumental

in stimulating at least some aspects of change in the community.

University of Palermo dealing with the depiction of the Sicilian peasantry

in the writings of Angelina Lanza Damiani, Louise Hamilton Caico,

In summary, American anthropologists, with the exception of Maria

has received much more sustained and critical attention in European

circles, particularly by students at Sicilian and mainland Italian universities.

What happens when research "subjects" read the ethnographies

anthropologists produce? The answer, in part, depends on what has

been written, how people interpret the ethnography, and the potential

implications of the work for specific individuals and the community as

ple’s regular everyday conversations. Most people, however, have some

knowledge of the American anthropologist and her work—a knowledge

ranging from the indirect and superficial to an in-depth knowledge of,

and scholarly interest in, what she and others have written about the

community.

At a more personal level, members of the Angilella family recall fondly

the woman who spent almost two years under the care and protection of

Don Totò Angilella. According to Alba Angilella, Charlotte Gower and

the Angilellas developed a strong friendship that lasted long after Gower

had returned to the United States. They exchanged letters for a number

of years and, on occasion, Gower sent gifts—such as crocheted shoes she

herself had made, as well as toys—for the children. Signora Alba also

recalls that a family member, the lawyer Silvio Angilella, along with his

Gower’s guides in Sicily, did not know her address in Washington DC.

He was amazed "that he simply had to look up her name in the telephone

directory of the area designated as the Intelligence Sector of the

to hear from Silvio that Gower welcomed him in a room she had filled

with photos and memorabilia of Milocca, items she used to remember

her days in Sicily (Vincenzo Ingrascì, field notes). For the Angilellas, La

Gower has become an integral figure in their family history.

Charlotte Gower Chapman is also a significant figure in the history

of Milena as a community. Many towns and rural areas across Europe

publicly acknowledging or celebrating various aspects of their cultural

or contest plans for the future. Milena is no exception. La Gower and

Luigi Pirandello, the famous Sicilian author awarded the Nobel Prize

Milocca into his works. Two of the short stories he produced at the

are set explicitly in Milocca. Mention of Milocca also appears in

the birth of interest in the modern cultural history of Milocca-Milena. In

a sense, La Gower not only placed the community on the international

map, but her work has served as the starting point or referent for much

In some cases, local or regional writers simply make reference to,

provide brief quotations from, or make use of photos related to Gower

was more concerned with identifying factual errors in the ethnography.

addresses some of these errors. La Gower, for example, stated that "the

Angilellas were faithful to the [Madonna of the] Addolorata because the

founder of the Milocchese branch of the family had been the donor of her

statue in the church, and the first to organize her annual festa" (Chapman

family has had an important link with the Madonna Addolorata and her

With respect to emigration from Milocca to the United States, Gower

Chapman suggested that the Milocchesi did not establish any formal

organizations. Instead, they remained "united by ties of blood kinship,

points out that this statement is incorrect. Milocchesi workers in West

Wyoming, Pennsylvania, had in fact established a mutual-aid society

that people may have held back this information from La Gower

out of fear that she was an American spy gathering material that might

be used to harm emigrants in the United States.

Some of these factual errors may not seem significant to an anthropological

or North American audience. At the local level, the correction

of errors made by foreign scholars takes on a different significance. As

also a form of research into a collective individuality, from which people

may find their personal identity" (our translation). The correction of

these factual errors is a reflection of Milena’s civic pride—a pride that

has fostered interest and participation in various cultural heritage initiatives,

including the production of a number of noteworthy publications.

brings together a series of articles dealing with approximately twenty

years of archaeological research in the vicinity of Milena, and combines

them with historical pieces, ethnographic works, as well as other contributions.

The La Rosa volume stands as an invaluable resource for both

the local and the scholarly community. La Gower features prominently in

the publication. The book not only contains a selection from the Italian

and critically with her work—for example, articles or reprints from the

writings of Mangiameli, Messana, Patterson, and Ravesteijn. Given the

scholarly attention La Gower receives in this volume, and the fact that

the book was published by the Pro Loco of Milena (a local, voluntary

organization devoted to promoting various aspects of Milena), it is clear

that at least certain segments of the community regard her work as a significant

contribution to Milena’s culture and history.

One of the more interesting local publications to make use of Gower

complied by Tommaso Palumbo and Vincenzo Ingrascì. The calendar

features both photos and text from La Gower’s research in Milocca,

and places them within an historical context. January and February

This is followed, for March, with a segment from the Italian version

to this piece, the compilers refer to La Gower’s ethnography as a true

while their final note (at the end of the calendar) states forcibly that

without Gower Chapman, Milena would not be as famous, and would

not have attracted so much scholarly attention around the world. Vincenzo

Milocca" (translated by Calogero Milazzo and Sam Migliore):

La poetica della vita Contadina The poetics of rural life

Charlotte Day Gower Chapman Charlotte Day Gower Chapman

Portò al mondo intero vicina To the entire world brought near

Lo scibile postero al luogo chiama Beckoning further research hither

The remaining sections of the calendar include excerpts from more recent

writings on Milena, including the ethnographic work of Pasqualino

in Milocca-Milena in the years after Gower Chapman’s original study.

The publication of the calendar was made possible by the Banca di

Credito Cooperativo di Milena, and it was distributed gratis to all of the

families of community. This calendar was the first product to bring La

Gower’s photos and writing into every home, and thereby raise awareness

of her work throughout the community. In the concluding statement,

Palumbo and Ingrascì express a plea to the community to "dedicate a

road, a piazza, a space to Charlotte" (our translation). Vincenzo Ingrascì

Giuseppe P. Palumbo served as president of Milena’s Pro Loco during

typical, late-nineteenth-century home transformed into a museum commemorating

peasant life and culture. The inspiration for establishing the

Casa Museo came directly from La Gower’s ethnography. Today, under

the leadership of Onofrio Raimondi, the museum continues to attract

visitors from various places, including school children. The Pro Loco

has prepared a pamphlet, with both photos and text, for distribution to

visitors. As part of the text, Enzo Tona selected a series of quotes from

Gower Chapman’s ethnography to give meaning to the photographs.

Giuseppe Palumbo is now curator of L’Antiquarium of Milena. The

Antiquarium—named after Arturo Petìx in recognition of his extensive

contributions to the study of the history and pre-history of Milena—

houses a selection of archaeological materials excavated at various sites

in the vicinity of the community. To coincide with the official opening

Culturali ed Ambientali of the Sicilian Regional Government sponsored

the publication of a special volume devoted to the new structure and its

In addition, Palumbo, in homage to La Gower, has set up a large poster

Although neither the Casa Museo nor the Antiquarium was dedicated

to Charlotte Gower Chapman, they provide an important physical space

that commemorates her historical link to the community.

Over the years, the community’s treasures, from both the ancient and

more recent periods, have been brought to the attention of a wider audience

in Italy, and around the world, through newspaper and magazine

Adele Cambria (a journalist) wrote a popular piece about the ancient

tombs discovered in the vicinity of Milena, as well as Charlotte Gower

Chapman’s work in the area. More recently, Milena’s cultural and historical

legacy has been advertised in the travel and tourism writings of

Web site (www.comune.milena.cl.it). La Gower in one way or another

is noticeably present in all of these writings.

Over the years, Milena experienced a significant out-migration. The cities

of Asti, in the Piedmont region of Italy; Aix-les-Bains , France; and

Basilea, Switzerland, attracted a significant number of these emigrants

emigrant communities in these three centers began to engage in serious

efforts to maintain and strengthen their many social and cultural links.

consisted of a collection of Pietro Nicastro photographs depicting various

the two communities, representatives of the city of Asti organized a special

presentation for Vito Messana’s translation of the Gower Chapman

with a slide show featuring Pietro Nicastro’s photographs of Milena,

and was followed with presentations by political figures, Vito Messana,

and Giuseppe Virciglio. The event itself was a success, attracting a large

crowd of Milenese emigrants interested in hearing about Milocca and its

the uniqueness of Milocca’s story, and to valorize people’s sense

the two communities together. The historical Milocca, and Gower

others, that help unify the two communities.

the Milenese community of Asti, Virciglio devotes a great deal of time

attended the book launch and, as part of the festivities, Giuseppe P.

have helped to cultivate important links between Milena and

between Milena and Aix-les-Bains. The association quickly achieved its

from Aix-les-Bains visited Milena and took part in various local

activities. One of these activities was an important religious service in

the community’s main church. During the service, Francesco Falletta, the

commented on the importance of religion to the process (see Bonomo

provided a direct quote from the Italian version of Charlotte Gower

Chapman’s text:

In orienting the Sicilian in relation to his society it is impossible

to stop with the description of his relationships to his fellow men.

Beyond the world of living human beings there exist for him entities

who are interested in his behavior and endowed with powers

to affect him for good or evil. The most important of these

beings are those whom he associates with the Church: God, the

saints and angels, the souls of the dead, and the devil. (Chapman

From our point of view, Falletta, using Gower Chapman as an authority

on cultural issues for Milocca-Milena, raised the discussion to a new

process to one that recognized the importance of both earthly and

spiritual links between the two communities.

of Milocca-Milena’s autonomy as a community. To mark the anniversary

Milena hosted a conference dealing with various factors leading to the

declaration of autonomy. As part of the proceedings, Giambattista Tona

Milocca. Tona not only mentions La Gower in the paper, but also makes

use of her text to discuss an unusual attempt by a "self-styled lawyer"

from Grotte (a nearby town) to declare Milocca an independent republic

Milocca-Milena.

A political struggle began to take shape in Milena in the latter part of

expropriation, however, raised concerns for certain segments of the population.

Within a short time, a determined and vocal group of individuals

mobilized an opposition movement to block the endeavor. The land

was located only a short distance from the town center, and included a

hundred years, a number of almond and olive trees of significant age, a

struggle soon became a news item throughout Sicily. Between December

was clearly a major focal point of both the struggle, and the media

attention.

The struggle took a new turn when Alessandro Pagano (the regional

assessor) and the Soprintendenza per i Beni Culturali ed Ambientali

(the Advisory Council responsible for issues of cultural heritage) began

Regional Authority (Regione Siciliana), with a letter addressed to the

mayor of Milena and the owners of the affected lands, asserted its intent

to declare the area a cultural heritage site. The opposition movement

had succeeded. The Director General of the Dipartimento Regionale Beni

providing a rationale for the decision, as well as a map drawing

out the limits of the protected area.

What is significant for our purposes is that Charlotte Gower Chapman

was cited repeatedly in both the media coverage and the official correspondence

to and from the government agency responsible for heritage

issues. Giuseppe P. Palumbo of the Antiquarium, for example, appealed

to the Soprintendenza to protect the site for historical and cultural reasons.

As part of his rationale for protecting the site, he discussed Gower

Chapman’s work in Milocca and the fact that she mentions this particular

carob in her ethnography—as a place, according to local lore,

the Dipartimento Regionale Beni Culturali ed Ambientali distributed in

support of its declaration also mentions this link between the carob and

the Gower Chapman ethnography.

Many individuals, using various rationales, took part in the struggle

of Charlotte Gower Chapman’s ethnography in the struggle. The

point we want to make, through this and some of the earlier examples,

is that La Gower has become one of the voices of authority in discussions

of culture and history in Milena. And, as a voice of authority, her

work can be used, in different contexts, to promote alternative points of

view on community issues.

For a number of years now, the local school system in Milena has taken

an active part in introducing students to the work of Charlotte Gower

Chapman. Professor Vincenzo Tona, an instructor at the Scuola Media

"Luigi Pirandello," for example, has the children under his care read

and discuss La Gower’s chapter "The Setting" as part of his lesson plan.

The students, in turn, have produced a number of publications with the

assistance of their instructors. These works often deal with the culture

and history of Milocca-Milena, making use of material from the Italian

secondary school students produced a CD with text and images, titled

also makes reference to Gower Chapman and her work in Milocca. In

Milena, it has become virtually impossible to discuss cultural and historical

issues without making reference, in one way or another, to La

Gower and her ethnography.

Professor Vincenzo Nicastro (the scholastic director of schools in

Media "Luigi Pirandello" was ready to celebrate the opening of its new

multimedia centre. Nicastro proposed that the centre be named after

Charlotte Day Gower Chapman. Local officials accepted the proposal,

and Mayor Giovanni Randazzo, Vincenzo Nicastro, and Professor Rosanna

Manganaro handled the official cutting of the ceremonial ribbon on

were in the process of preparing this article for publication, and Mayor

of Messana’s translation of the Gower Chapman text reprinted for the

community. The official dedication of the multimedia center to La Gower

event was particularly significant because it was the first time something

in Milena had been officially named after Gower Chapman.

One year later, Mayor Giovanni Randazzo realized his dream of having

the Messana translation reprinted by the Franco Angeli publishing

house. Copies of the text were distributed among community members,

anniversary of Charlotte Gower Chapman’s research in the community.

As part of the proceedings a number of dignitaries, scholars, and guests

made presentations to an appreciative audience. Some of the highlights of

these presentations included the following. Onofrio Raimondi, President

of the Pro Loco of Milena, announced that the Casa Museo was being

dedicated officially to Gower Chapman. Vincenzo Ingrascì provided a

biographical sketch of Gower Chapman, and read the opening segment

of this work. Tommaso Palumbo followed with an historical overview of

anthropological research in Milocca-Milena, and raised questions about

the benefit of the community. Vincenzo Nicastro spoke of the role of the

school system in promoting various aspects of Milena’s culture and history,

including the contributions of La Gower.

Giuseppe Virciglio and Vito Messana traveled to Milena for the conference

from their homes in the Asti area. Virciglio, as part of his presentation,

read three short poems about Charlotte Gower Chapman in Sicilian

dialect. Messana, in contrast, spoke about his collaboration with Arturo

of Palermo, spoke of the work of Italian scholars—such as Salvatore Salomone-

Gower Chapman’s ethnography. He stressed, however, that La Gower

had a keen eye for detail and that she opened an important path for further

research. Caterina Pasqualino could not attend the conference, but

her mother traveled from Palermo with Professor Buttitta to be part of

storyteller) from nearby Sutera, performed a concert in Sicilian. Although

not on the official program, Italo Angilella also spoke at the conference.

His statement dealt with Don Totò Angilella and the failure in

Milena to officially recognize his contributions to the community.

In certain respects, the conference served as an important corrective to

the community’s failure to hold a book launch in Milena for the Messana

Gower Chapman’s contribution to the community, and to acknowledge

Messana’s efforts in bringing her work to a local audience in a format

that could be easily understood and studied. At the same time, the conference

provided an avenue for the community to celebrate its own accomplishments

over the past eighty years. Milena is no longer Milocca,

but Milocca will always be part of Milena.

Early in her career, Charlotte Day Gower displayed signs of becoming a

prominent and distinguished anthropologist. A variety of factors, however,

contributed in moving her further and further away from the anthropological

manuscript, a document some consider a classic ethnography of an early

European society, has had only fleeting and limited impact on the collective

memory of the anthropological community (especially in North

America). Today, at best, Gower Chapman represents a footnote in anthropological

history, a disciplinary ancestor without a following. Any

attempt to explain this fate, must come to terms with not only the specifics

surrounding Gower Chapman’s personal experiences, but also issues

of gender and sexism, academic notions of "publish or perish," intradisciplinary

prejudices concerning acceptable fieldwork locations, the

place of method and theory in disciplinary discourse, the rapid growth

of various fields of study within the sub-discipline of cultural anthropology,

and the sheer explosion in the number of anthropological publications

produced from year to year.

Today, there are a number of important works that have brought the

historical and current contributions of female anthropologists to the

"Charlotte Gower and the Subterranean History of Anthropology" has

given Gower Chapman’s work a second opportunity to reach a new and

growing anthropological audience. We hope this publication will further

strengthen her position as a disciplinary ancestor.

Gower Chapman’s fate in Milocca (now Milena), albeit somewhat ambiguous,

has taken a different turn. La Gower has become a prominent

figure in the minds of some community members, and everyone seems at

least to have heard of the young American woman who visited Milocca

at a time when few strangers, let alone exotic strangers, made their way

to the community. Gower Chapman’s manuscript has become both an

entry point into aspects of the life and history of Milocca and, as a document

available around the world, a source of community pride.

Palumbo stopped suddenly, looked up at the stars, and whispered to

Sam Migliore: "I wonder what Donna Carlotta would think if she could

hear us talking about her as we walk here." He said this just as we approached

the spot depicted in her photo of a flock of sheep on Milocca’s

La Gower began research in Sicily, we could ask a similar question.

What might Charlotte Gower Chapman think of all the attention she

and her work are receiving in Milena? What would be her reaction to

hearing Tommaso Palumbo read the following passage from her ethnography

These are the people of Milocca, living in a small isolated community

of recent growth, in which they carry on a fairly selfcontained

existence. By the accident of birth any Sicilian finds

himself projected into a system of relationships with his fellows,

or into conditions which will determine to a large extent

his future attitudes and obligations toward them. The sex of the

individual, his parents and their social position, will affect his

education, his means of livelihood, his standing in the community,

his political affiliations, and his moral code. The geographical

location of his parents’ residence will influence his range of

And, what would she make of his conclusion that this passage had captured

the very "genome, the genetic map of the Milocchese community"

We acknowledge and thank the following for their assistance and encouragement during

the research and writing of this paper: the inhabitants of Milena, Alba Angilella, Paolino

Cipolla, Natasha Damiano, Caroline Daniels, Anna Foschi Ciampolini, Carlo Garlisi,

Nunzio Insalaco, Russell King, Calogero Milazzo, Vincenzo Nicastro, Giuseppe P. Palumbo,

Tommaso Palumbo, Guy Patterson, Adriano Petìx, Carlo Petìx, Onofrio Raimondi,

Wim Ravesteijn, Joe Schenkman, Paolino Schillaci, Carmelo Tona, Vincenzo Tona, Colleen

van de Voort, and the Ingrascì-Taibi family. The research and writing was made possible,

in part, through research grants from Kwantlen Polytechnic University and the Social Science

and Humanities Research Council, Canada.

Gower Chapman’s life, and it will be cited repeatedly in this piece. We would also

like to acknowledge that her work has led us to a number of the sources we use in our

presentation.

and Sociological Study of a Typical Sicilian Village Community as a Contribution

to the Background of the Problem of the Sicilian Immigrant to the United States" (Cole

To our knowledge this further research did not take place.

Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library (hereafter cited

as UCL).

of Anthropology Papers, UCL.

UCL.

Institution (hereafter cited as Nash Papers). Gower’s letter to Nash is dated simply

manuscript, it must have been written prior to the submission of the manuscript to the

Archives (hereafter cited as General Correspondence George Sellery).

Sellery.

of Anthropology Papers, UCL.

Anthropology Papers, UCL.

play out its mission to contribute to nation-building projects, which included actively assisting

the aid of a graduate student . . . collected some material on a small village outside Hongkong."

She published a couple of articles, in Chinese, for a student journal, but we have no

its fall" had been "turned down by a number of our leading publishers." An excerpt from

UCL.

plans and preparations occurred long before it became public knowledge that he would be

visiting the community.

various historical, social, and spiritual themes often related directly to her experiences on

students in Milena. The book does not make specific reference to Gower Chapman, but

includes her ethnography as part of the bibliography.

Progetto ambientale e territorio. Milena.

California Press.

Damiani, Louise Hamilton Caico, Charlotte Gower Chapman. Tesi di laurea, Facoltà di

Scienze della Formazione. Università degli Studi di Palermo.

Cassa Rurale ed Artigiana di Milena.

Westport CT: Bergin and Garvey.

Ethnographic insights. Peterborough ON: Broadview Press.

Pucci Zanca. Palermo: Epos.

Wisconsin–Madison Archives.

Woman Geographers. Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

Milano: Franco Angeli.

Milena.

of Ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Press.

the Records of the University’s American Trustees. New York: Trustees of Lingnan

University.

University of Chicago Press.

of California Press.

London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

City-states in Archaic Sicily. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology, Oxbow

Press.

Department of Anthropology. n.d. Papers. Special Collections Research Center, University

of Chicago Library.

Guerra al fascismo. Caltanissetta: SET. Parluzzo Editore.

Praxis-Oriented Culture Concept in the Health Disciplines: Conundrums and Possibilities.

Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and

Schenkman Publishing.

———. n.d. Papers. Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library.

Company Archives.

Reference to the Evolution of Neandertal Facial Form. Journal of Human Evolution

Chicago.

Chicago.

Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

DC.

Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

alla confluenza fra il Platani e il Gallo d’Oro. Caltanissetta: Regione Siciliana,

Dipartimento dei Beni Culturali Ambientali.

Traditions: Essays toward a More Inclusive History of Anthropology. Richard Handler,

University of Wisconsin Press.

New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.

of Dr. Charlotte Gower, New Director of Training for Women’s Reserve. Washington

Mussomeli. Caltanisetta: Assessorato Regionale ai Beni Culturali, Ambientali e alla

Pubblica Istruzione.

College.

edition. London: Routledge.

Milena: Pro Loco.

Press.

Illinois Press.

and Windus.

britannico per le forze d’occupazione in Sicilia. Caltanissetta-Roma: Salvatore Sciascia

Editore.

campanne alle robbe: La storia lung di Milocca-Milena. Vincenzo La Rosa, ed. Pp.

Straniere (Pescara), Università degli Studi "G. Annunzio," Chieti.

DC: History and Museums Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps. [Also available

at the HyperWar website, http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-OSS/

index.html.]

Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Press.

War II. http://www.chadduck.com/ymarines/library/documents/women.htm, accessed

Gower Chapman), edizione italiana. Milano: Franco Angeli.

University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives.

in Language, Culture, and Personality. W. Cowan, M. K. Foster, and E. F. K. Koerner,

of Nebraska.

The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Post War Years.

presented at the Convegno—Per Capirci: Un viaggio lungo, più di Ottantt’anni da

Milena—Comune d’Europa. Milena: n.p.

River NJ: Prentice Hall.

Scientifiche Italiane.

PhD dissertation, Trinity College, Dublin.

Press.

di Milena.

Pro Loco di Milena.

di Milena.

Village. MA thesis, University of Amsterdam.

of Chicago.

———. n.d. Papers. Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library.

Clarendon Press.

Sandron.

Struggle for Palermo. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Ga–Gl. University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives.

New York: AltaMira Press.

in Archaeology and History. New York: Columbia University Press.

Charlotte Gower, Former Professor, Received Basic Training as War Prisoner. Washington

University of Wisconsin Press.

University of Wisconsin Press.

in Pedagogìa, Università degli Studi, Palermo.

ad oggi. Milena: Cassa Rurale ed Artigiana di Milena.

educazione all’abitare per ragazzi delle seconde e terse classi. Caltanissetta: Regione Siciliana

and Istituto Comprensivo Statale.

Franco Angeli.

Variation in the Crania of Black and White Perinates. Forensic Science International